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by Jayaram V
The Ajivikas belonged to an ancient ascetic tradition that thrived in the
Indian
subcontinent for a very long time before it disappeared
completely, like the Lokayatas and many other sects, partly due to the
intense prejudice against its doctrines by established religions like
Brahmanism, Jainism and Buddhism and partly because of its popularity
among people of lower strata who were considered unclean and
untouchable. Whatever we know about this sect comes to us in the form
of fragmentary references found in the Buddhist and Jain texts and
they are not reliable sources of information. It is
possible that even the word Ajivikas (lifeless beings) might be a
derogatory reference to the sect used by its rivals out of scorn and
not the actual name of the sect. Since we do not know what they were
actually called, we have no option but to use this term to refer this
sect, which at one was one of the most popular ascetic traditions in
India outside the fold of Brahmanism.
The Ajivikas existed as an organized ascetic sect in ancient India
long before the birth of the Buddha and Mahavira and enjoyed
widespread popularity among people who lived on the fringes of Vedic society
as dasyus, dasas and low caste people. It was essentially a tribal,
rural and folk tradition that acquired a status of its own due to the
depth of its appeal and doctrine that discounted all effort and
promoted surrender to the flow of life as dictated by the will of God.
It was a doctrine that
emphasized flowing with flow rather than against it. The concept of
sanyasa or renunciation of effort agrees essentially with the doctrine
of the Ajivikas, because they believed that human effort was a waste
of time and energy since man's fate was already predetermined by the
will of God and the
best way to enjoy it was to flow with it, accepting life as it was
handed out by God's plan and living without remorse and regret.
According to tradition both the Buddha and Mahavira spent some time
in the company of Makkali Gosala, one of the chief proponents of
Ajivika sect, who probably lived between 560 and 484 BC. We are not
sure what influence he exerted on both of them, but their relationship
seems to have been unsteady and temporary. While we do not know what
exactly the Ajivikas believed or practiced, we have indications to
believe that they practiced an ancient form of Saivism, that in some
ways had affinity with the ancient Pasupatha and Kalamukha sects. The
Ajivikas probably wandered as naked monks, like the monks of the
Digambara sect of Jainism, begging for alms in the villages and using
magic and fortune-telling to attract people and gain their attention.
While we have no clear evidence, it is believed that Bindusara, the
father of Ashoka, patronized Ajivikas and himself might have become an
Ajivika in the later part of his life.
Much of what we know about this sect comes to us from the
information we have about the life and teachings of Makkali Gosala,
who was probably one of the most popular religious personalities of
his time. Born in a low caste family of humble background,
Gosala was inspired in his early life by his own father Mankha, a
religious bard who made a living by selling images. Although he came
from a humble family, Gosala had a religious bent of mind and became
acquainted with the Vaisheshika and Samkhay philosophies. But for
several years he continued to lead a normal family life, following his
father's occupation, before he was drawn to the Ajivika sect. His asceticism,
knowledge and sincerity attracted the attention of many Ajivikas who,
according to Bhagavatisutra, believed him to be their 24th
Thirthankara. His popularity drew to him many educated urban people
from higher castes, including people from princely families such as
the Gautama and Mahavira, who as young aspirants, dissatisfied with
the vedic traditions and ritualism, were looking at that time for more
meaningful answers to the existential problems of human life.
According to tradition Mahavira spent about six years in the
company of Gosala while Gautama spent about three or four years. The
Avashyakasutra of Jina Dasa states that Gosala parted ways with his
two famous disciples because of some irreconcilable differences over
some doctrinal issues. The separation resulted in some rivalry and
religious debates between Ajivikas and the followers of Jainism and
Buddhism. But it did not dent the popularity of Gosala or the Ajivika
sect. After this incident, Gosala stayed at Sravasthi in the house of
a potter woman and continued his preaching and practice of the Ajivika
doctrine. During this period he also codified the scriptures of
Ajivikas in consultation with the other luminaries of the sect. The
last part of his life was spent in silence, dance and drunkenness.
During the last moments of his life he said to have remarked that the
form of Hallah1 (God) was like the root of a bamboo and one should
play it like Veena, a musical instrument. The teachings of Gosala were
supposed to have been compiled into an ancient Dravidian text called
Navakadir, fragments of which can now be found in the famous Tamil
novel, Manimekalai.
Some essential elements of Ajivika doctrine are available to us in
the Jain and Buddhist texts. But since these are the interpretations
of rival sects, one need to view them with a certain degree of caution
and skepticism. These texts describe that Gosala believed in Niyati or
predeterminism, which is more or less akin to what is more popularly
known in the west as fatalism. According to this doctrine2, the world
evolves and moves in a predetermined way, like the unfolding of the
design of a tree hidden in its seed. There is no place for free will
in the events of the world or in the birth and death of beings. Beings
are not born on their own accord or according to their free will.
Everything happens according to a predetermined plan or niyati based
on its natural state (svabhava) and some fortuitous occurrence (sangati).
According to the Buddhist and Jain sources, Ajivikas believed in fate rather than karma.
Gosala said to have believed that the suffering and evil experienced by a being
came not from his
previous karma but from the fate to which he was subject. The Ajivikas
discounted all human effort. Everything came out of fate and nothing
could be done to change it. So there was no use fighting against it. They
believed that the number of souls was infinite. They also believed in
the reincarnation of souls and cycles of creation. They used dance and
music to achieve ecstatic states of consciousness. The indulged in the
resuscitation of the dead through esoteric practice of vital energy
transference, called pautta parihara. It is believed that the doctrine
of Gosala had some aspects of the atomic theory of the Vaisheshikas
and the philosophy of Samkhya. It is the humble opinion of this writer
that the Ajivikas probably believed in the will of God rather than
fate and they surrendered to it without question, like the present day
Sanyasis, but since Buddhism and Jainism did not believe in the
existence of absolute God nor in any divine design hidden in creation
or unfolding of life, they interpreted the beliefs and practices of
Ajivikas as fatalistic to prove their point. The conflict between
Gosala and his two famous disciples was probably with regard to the
role of an individual and that of God in human suffering. There is a
popular saying in Saivism which states that "not even an ant can
act without the will of Siva". Probably the Ajivikas believed in
similar philosophy.
The Ajivika doctrine was probably a
step ahead of Samkhya's basic notion that the cause was always hidden
in its effect. However it is not clear how they reconciled with the
Samkhya's assertion that Prakriti or nature was an unintelligent and
mechanical force or its belief in the non existence of God. The
doctrine of Gosala consisted of six parts: gain (labham), loss (alabham),
happiness (sukham), sorrow (duham), life (jiviyam) and death (maranam).
These are the pairs of opposites, which according to Buddhism, Jainism
and Hinduism, need to be transcended to overcome human suffering and
become free. While we are not sure in what context Gosala used these
principles, it is possible that he might have shown his followers the
way to transcend them and achieve equanimity of the mind.
It is interesting that a popular sect like Ajivikas disappeared
completely from the Indian soil. The increasing popularity of Buddhism
and Jainism, some doctrinal issues that were difficult to practice and
uphold, lack of royal patronage and the absence of leadership
following the departure of Gosala might have contributed to the
decline. Their religious texts were not preserved probably because
they were not composed in Sanskrit and incomprehensible and
unacceptable to the ancient Vedic scholars. Part of their philosophy
might have found its way into some ancient Saiva sects and some
popular Hindu beliefs. According to some inscriptions a form of Ajivika sect might
have survived as late as 13th or 14th century. However we are not sure
whether the name was used to refer actual Ajivika sect or followers of
digambara sect of Jainism. Although it has disappeared altogether, the
Ajivika sect seems to have left its footprints in the Saivism of the
Post Mauryan period and the popularity of its sects like the
Kalamukhas and Kapalikas.
Suggested Further Reading
Footnotes
1 It is interesting that the
name "Hallah" used by Ajivikas to refer God, sounds so
similar to the name Allah of Islam. This together with the evidence of
Indus valley civilization in Oman makes one wonder whether some
aspects of the doctrine of Ajivikas, which is but an ancient form of
Saivism, might have come to the Indian subcontinent from the migrant
communities of Mesapotamia and probably eastern Africa.
2.As quoted in Saddarshana Smuchchaya by Haribhadra
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