The Nyaya Philosophy

by V. R. Gandhi, B.A., M.R.A.S. Barrister-at-Law

1. Having finished our discussion on the Sankhya and its counterpart the Yoga philosophy we now enter upon the Nyaya of Gautama with its supplement the Vaisheshika.

The author or rather the recognized promulgator of the Nyaya philosophy is Gautama. This philosophy starts with the proposition that in order to obtain the summum bonum one must acquire the knowledge of the truth; knowledge of the truth drives away miseries, births, mundane existence, faults and false knowledge and the result is Moksha, the freedom of the soul. How can the knowledge of the truth be obtained? Gautama says: 'Knowledge of sixteen topics leads to Moksha. What are these sixteen topics? They are all connected with the process of reasoning and the laws of thought.1 We do not find in Nyaya any prominence given to the rational demonstration of the universe. This we shall find in its complement the Vaisheshika. The Nyaya therefore teaches us the method of investigation, the Vaisheshika following that method actually tries to investigate into the nature of the universe.

2. The Nyaya mode of investigation may seem very peculiar to those who are not acquainted with the Hindu mode of thinking but it is quite Indian and unique. It says that if you wish to investigate into the nature of things you must proceed first to mention Udaish, then give the Lakshan. of those things and lastly to make Pareeksha. I shall explain these terms. First you have to mention Udaish, i.e. only to name the things by their respective names. Then you have to give the Lakshan. of those things, i.e. give the differentia of those things-differentia, i.e. those qualities which belong to them only and to nothing else and which at the same time are their essential qualities, i.e. qualities without which they cannot exist. This means that after naming them you have to give their logical definitions. And thirdly you have to examine whether those definitions are right. The sixteen topics of Nyaya philosophy are treated in that way. We shall proceed with them in order.

3. The first is Praman., i.e. the means or instruments by which Pram or the right measure of any subject is to be obtained. These are the different processes by which the mind arrives at a true and accurate knowledge. These processes are four Pratyaksh, Anuman, Upman, and Shabd. We shall describe them when we come to the Vaisheshika philosophy. The second topic is Prmaiya by which is meant all the objects or subjects of right knowledge. They are twelve in number: Atma (soul), Shreer (body), Indriyas (organs or senses), Arth (objects of sense), Buddhi (understanding or intellect), Man (mind), Prvriti (activity), Dosh (faults), Praityabhav (transmigration), Phal consequences or fruits), Dukha (pain), Apvarg (emancipation). These are the twelve of which we have to get the right knowledge by any one of the four processes. The other fourteen topics are not different categories under which things can be classed but rather regular stages through which a logical controversy is to pass. For instance, in discussing a topic there is first the state of Sanshaya or doubt about the point to be discussed. Next there must be a Pryojan or motive for discussing it. Next a drishant or a familiar example must be adduced in order that a Sidhant or established conclusion may be arrived at. These four with the former two Prman. and Prmaiya, make up six. The seventh is Avayava, i.e. the argument of the objector split up. The eighth is Tark or refutation of his objection. The ninth is NirNyaya or coming to a conclusion. But this is not enough for the Nyaya philosopher. He thinks that every side of a question must be examined, every possible objection stated and so a further Vad or controversy takes place which of course leads to Jalpa (mere wrangling), followed by Vitanda (caviling), Haitvabhas (fallacious reasoning), Chhala (quibbling artifices), Jati futile replies), and Nigrahsthan (the putting an end to all discussion by a demonstration of the objector's incapacity for argument). These are Gautama's sixteen topics.

4. The most important part of the [philosophy] is the Vaisheshika system. The Nyaya of Gautama does not aim at a {demonstration of the] universe. The aim of every [philosophy] ought to be to give an [analytical] demonstration of the [universe, it being] the way for obtaining the summum bonum. The Nyaya only mentions the objects or subjects to be known but it is Kanada, the author of the Vaisheshika, who tries to analyze the things and then lays down that final liberation- the summum bonum -follows the right understanding of things. His method is that of generalization. He arranges all the nameable objects, their properties or abstractions even, under seven categories. Let us place ourselves in his position and look at the universe as he does; then only we will be able to understand his philosophy.

5. We [observe] things around us; we see uniformity [and variety] in them. What is that [uniformity and what] is that variety? That [something which] is common to many things, which [is all- pervading] and is without beginning or end [accounts for] uniformity. Not with ..... objects, we see variety in them(?); [notwithstanding] common properties found in all of them, there is something which individualizes them. This is variety. The Vaisheshika called uniformity or generality Samanya and variety or individuality Vishaish. They are the same as genus and species. But this generality and individuality do not exist by themselves. They exist in something. That something which is the tabernacle of qualities or energies is what the Vaisheshika calls Dravya (substance). He thinks that the qualities and energies or actions are separate entities and therefore ought to be classed under separate categories. The first are what he calls Gun. (Qualities), the second are Karma (actions). We saw before that generality or individuality does not exist without a substance; so there must be some intimate relation between them; in the same manner, we do not see qualities or actions except in substances; (so) there must be an intimate relation between substances and their qualities or actions. This relation is classified by the Vaisheshika under a separate category and is named Samvay or perpetual intimate relation. Thus all the objects can be classed under six heads Dravya (substance), Gun. (Quality), Karma (actions), Samanya (generality), Vishaish (individuality) and Samvaye (the perpetual relation). There is nothing in the universe outside these six categories. In order however to include negative qualities into the nameable objects- as darkness which

is the absence of light, a seventh category called Abhav or non-existence or negation of existence is added to the six mentioned before.