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by Jayaram V
This essays explores the practice of dhyana or
meditation in Hindu tradition, from a historical perspective,
based on the Hindu scriptures such as the Veda Samhitas, the
Upanishads, the Bhagavadgita and the Tantra shastras, with a
brief analysis of meditation practices of Jainism and Buddhism
The purpose of meditation or dhyana is to become consciously
aware of or investigate into one's
own mind and body to know oneself. It is essentially an exclusive as well as an inclusive
process, in which one withdraws one's mind and senses from the
distractions of the world and contemplates upon a chosen object or idea with
concentration. It is focused thinking with or without the exercise of individual
will, in which the mind and the body has to be brought together to function as
one harmonious whole. With the help of meditation we can overcome our
mental blocks, negative thinking, debilitating fears, stress and anxiety by
knowing their cause and dealing with them. In dhyana we gain insightful awareness
whereby we can control over our responses and reactions. Through its regular practice, we come to
understand the nature of things, the impermanence of our corporeal existence,
the fluctuations of our minds, the source of our own suffering and its possible
resolution. The difference between meditation and contemplation is mostly
academic. According to, some meditation is an insightful observation
and contemplation a concentrated reflection, with detachment being the common
factor between the two. In this essay both the words are used interchangeably to convey
the same meaning as dhayna.
Dhyana is a Sanskrit word. "Dhi" means receptacle
or the mind and "yana" means
moving or going. Dhyana means journey or movement of the mind. It is a mental
activity of the mind (dhi). In Hindu philosophy, the mind (manas) is
viewed as a receptacle (dhi) into which thoughts
pour back and forth from the universal pool of thought forms. According to Hindu tradition,
the human mind has the creative potency of God. You become what you think. You
are a sum total of your thoughts and desires, not only of this
life but also of your past lives. What you think and
desire
grows upon you, becomes part of your latent impressions (samskaras) and influence
the course of your life here and here after. These samskaras determine the future course of your
lives as they accompany you to the next world. All your mental
actions are part of your karma as much as any physical action.
Even the animals have the ability to evolve into higher being
through their mental focus1.
Meditation is observing the inward
and outward movement of thoughts that are coming and going out of the mind, with silence (maunam), stability (dhiram) and
detachment (vairagyam). According to Hindu theories of creation, all the beings
and worlds emanated from God (mentioned as
Brahma in some scriptures and Brahman in others) through meditation only. Its
mysteries and its dimensions can be
comprehended in transcendental states of self-absorption which is possible through meditation only. Since each individual is a carbon
copy of the universe, by understanding ourselves we can understand the manifest
universe. Thus our ancient rishis practiced meditation and contemplation to discover the truths concerning
themselves and the world around them. In their deep meditative
states they envisioned the Vedic wisdom and Universal Self. Since the knowledge poured forth into
their receptive and stabilized minds from the universal consciousness, on its
own, without any egoistic intention or selfishness on
their part, it is considered as not man made (apaurusheya), but divine and
truthful (pramana).
All thoughts and knowledge exist in the universe. We do
not create thoughts, although we erroneously believe so, just as we are not the
real doers of our actions, as declared in the Bhagavadgita, but mere instruments
in the hands of God. We can only receive them and make meaning out of them according
to the flow of our inclinations, intentions, intellect and attitudes. The most exalted spiritual truths are revealed to us
in our moments of reverential silence, when
our minds are focused, the senses and the self-sense are asleep and the desires
are extinguished. The six Hindu schools of
philosophy are so called darshanas (visions) because they are products of such receptive process in
which knowledge was envisioned (darsanam) in the pit of the human mind that was
untainted by the impurities of worldly life. While the followers of respective
schools may argue or quarrel about the merits and demerits of their respective systems of philosophy,
from a spiritual perspective, we hold them to be different standpoints of the same
universal knowledge revealed to man at different points of time in history, and
like any other standpoint they represent a particular view of the reality and do
not wholly represent the universal reality itself, which is well rounded, eternal, infinite and
absolute in itself without divisions, grades and contradictions.
The Vedic seers did not use the word dhyana in the early Vedic theology. But
through their own personal experience, they were aware of the importance of the
mind and its ability to manifest things. They viewed creation as the mental
manifestation of
the Isvara or Brahman, the universal Self and they believe through austerities
and penances man could acquire similar potencies. The creation of an alternate
heaven(trisanku) by sage Viswamitra is a case in point. According to Jenine Miller, a British scholar, the
Vedic prayer was a form of dhyana in which the two sense functions, "vision
and sound, seership and singing are intimately connected."2
The Vedic concept of dhayna or meditation seems to have evolved gradually
with the emergence of Upanishadic thought and the idea that man personified the
entire universe within himself and by himself and that hidden deep within him
was an eternal principle that was Universal Self in its individual
aspect. Either man (purusha) was a projection of the universe in its own mode or
the universe was a projection of the individual self (purusha) in its own form.
Both views enjoyed patronage of scholarly minds. If the former was true, our
existence was ephemeral and part of a much larger dream, and If the latter
was true, then the universe might be an illusion. In either case the world
seemed to be unreal or illusory, a view that caught the attention of Hindu
scholars for centuries and found its way into the monistic (advauta) philosophy
of Shankara.
Miller proposed the view that in the
beginning the Vedic seers held Brahman to be a meditative state, not a universal
entity. She suggested that the Vedic seers practiced three different
types of meditation and were familiar with three states of transcendental reality, which
they identified with Brahman. In addition they were also familiar with the forth
state although it was not explicitly mentioned in the early
Vedic hymns. They are:
- Mantric meditation or meditation on the Vedic mantras with concentration,
- Visual meditation or meditation on a particular deity with illumined thought,
- Absorption in mind and heart or meditation on illumined insight residing
in the mind and the heart.
- Samadhi or the experience of the ecstatic state of Brahman
was the fourth state of Brahman, which is not mentioned in the Rigveda but described in the Mandukya Upanishad as
the Fourth state (turiya)..
The early Vedic hymns may not mention the word dhyana or dharana
explicitly, but we have indications in the scriptures to believe that the Rigvedic seers were familiar with
contemplative and meditative methods of self-enquiry. The Upanishads are not
speculative works of human imagination, but revelatory scriptures envisioned by the Seers
as they were exploring the riddles of human existence. Similarly the Vedic
hymns, constituting the samhitas, were transmitted to them in deep meditative
states.
Apart from the Seers and Rishs, the Vedic texts mention
many types of ascetics, including kesins,3 the long
haired ones, who appear to have practiced some kind of breath control, with elements
of shamanism, mantra and tantra yoga, and
had the ability to display some siddhis (perfectiosn) such as levitation. Vratyas were another group of ascetics, outside the
pale of Vedic society, who seem to have been treated rather
unfairly by the Vedic scholars and who practiced austerities and
esoteric rituals, some of which found their way into Hinduism
possibly through Saivism.
Descriptions of meditation practice in the Upanishads
In the Upanishads words such as dhaya, dhvai,
manta, drsti, mati are used to denote meditation4. Tapas
was a more popular
spiritual practice in which meditation formed part of a set of austerities and
penances that
were aimed to generate bodily heat or inner fire to burn away the impurities of
the mind and the body. Tapas was rooted in Vedic tradition, a system by itself,
having its own body of practices, which thrived prior to the emergence of the
classical yoga as a standard spiritual practice. It was practiced by many seers and
sages of the Vedic and epic age, who believed that tapas was the source of the
creative potency even in case of gods. According to the Rigveda, the word emanated
from the primordial Being by the great heat of austerity (tapas)5 Another word that is used in the Upanishads frequently to
denote meditation is "upasana", a meditative practice that seems to
have gradually evolved into dhyana. Compared to upasana, dhayana is a more concentrated and meditative
practice without the outward ritual component and the devotional fervor. The word
upansana is used in the
Upanishads in a boarder sense to denotes ritual worship or service, with or without the employment of udgita (Aum), ritual chants
or sacrificial mantras. The practice seems to have developed with the
evolution of the Vedic thought, as is evident in the Briahdaranyaka Upanishad, one
of the earliest Upanishads, which led to the identification of the human
body with the cosomos6, internalization of Vedic ritual and
internal worship, through contemplation,
of various divinities such as the vital breaths, fire,
water, speech, mind, the eyes, the body and the consciousness, each
representing a particular aspect of the manifest creation. In this progressive
form of meditation, which proceeded from the outer to the inner, worshipping the inmost Self or Brahman was considered to
be the best7.
These early ideas gradually gave way to more
advanced forms of meditation which sought to control the mind and the body for
experiencing various transcendental
states of consciousness. The knowledge of these states was kept confidential and
expressed mostly in symbolic terms. Brahman was now recognized as the highest and supreme
Reality rather than mere meditative state. The realization that beyond all
divinities existed the resplendent and inmost Self and that it could be attained
by withdrawing the outgoing senses, stabilizing the mind and concentrating upon
the inmost Self,
gave way to the emergence of dhyana as an essential and useful contemplative
technique. In
this process, silence (mauna) and renunciation of worldly life were the contributing
or facilitating factors8.
The Chandogya Upanishad
The Chandogya Upanishad reflects this progressive
development in the Vedic thought. The Upanishad views meditation or
contemplation (dhyna) as a journey into oneself till one reaches the reality
that is permanent, reliable and beyond which there is nothing else to be found
or realized. It explains the various ways in which one can meditate upon Aum (udgita).
In a conversation between Narada and Sanatkumara, which is recorded in the
Upanishad, the
latter explains the progressive forms of meditation (upasana) upon the various aspects of the mind and the body, from the outer to the inner, in order to overcome suffering and realize
the true nature of Brahman. He begins by saying that one should meditate (upasana)
upon
the name (nama) as Brahman, then the speech (vak), then the mind (manas), then the cit consciousness (citta), then
contemplation (dhyana), then intelligence (vijnanam), then
strength (balam), then food (annam), then water, then heat, then ether and so on. Each of these
methods of meditations said to result in some specific benefit.
The following verse from the Upanishad9 envisions the whole universe and
its constituent parts being in a state of deep meditation.
"Contemplation is assuredly greater than thought. The earth contemplates as it
were. The atmosphere contemplates as it were. The heaven contemplates as it
were. The waters contemplate as it were, the mountains contemplate as it were.
Gods and men contemplate as it were. Therefore he among men here attains
greatness, he seems to have obtained a share of (the reward of) contemplation.
Now the small people of quarrelsome, abusive and slandering, the superior men
have obtained a share of (the reward of) contemplation. Meditate on
contemplation."
The verse identifies stability or firmness as the outcome of contemplation
(dhyana), a concept that
became the focal point in the subsequent scriptures such as the Yogasutra and
the Bhagavadgita. According to the Upanishad, contemplation is better than
routine thinking because the former leads to stability while the latter leads to
disturbances. The earth and the mountains are firm and stable because they are
forever immersed in meditation. So men too can achieve greatness and firmness
through contemplation. Ordinary people have no control on their minds so they
speak carelessly. But superior men control their thoughts and speech because of
contemplation.
The Katha Upanishad
The Katha Upanishad10 also suggests a similar approach by
emphasizing the need to stabilize the mind through the practice of self-contemplation (adhyatma
yoga) to overcome both joy and sorrow and realize Brahman who is difficult to be
seen (durdasam), deeply hidden (gudham), inside a cave (guhatitam) and dwells in
the deep (gahvarestham).
Realizing through self-contemplation that primal God, difficult to be seen,
deeply hidden, set in the cave (of the heart), dwelling in the deep, the wise
man leaves behind both joy and sorrow.
The Svetasvatara Upanishad
The Svetasvatara Upanishad, with its definitive leanings
towards Saivism, mentions the word "dhyana-yoga" in one
verse11 and "dhyana"
in two verses suggestive of the changing times and the systematization of the
knowledge of yoga. It declares that those who practiced dhayna-yoga
saw the self power of the divine (devatma sakti) hidden in His own qualities (sva
gunair nigudham) as the first cause (karanam) of creation, which they understood
in their contemplative mode12 as a rotating wheel having fifty spokes (energies),
three tires (qualities) and one hub (Isvara or God). In creation there is
perishable matter (pradhana) and imperishable Lord (Hara). By meditating upon
Him, uniting with him and reflecting upon Him one is freed from illusion of the
world (maya nivrittih)13.
The Upanishad also explains how meditation should
be performed. It is by using the body as the lower friction stick (arani) and the
syllable aum (pranava) as the upper friction stick one may see hidden God (devam)
in meditation. This effort has to be accompanied by truthfulness (satyam)
and austerity (tapas). According to the Upanishad, yoga of which dhyana is an
important component, is a cleansing process. Just as a mirror covered with dust
is able to reflect well when it is cleaned, when through yoga we overcome the
illusion and ignorance we have about ourselves and our existence, we are able to
discern the Universal Self hidden in all as the source of all and transcend
death.
Maitri Upanishad
According to Maitri Upanishad, Prajapati Brahma, the creator god,
being alone and unhappy,
meditated upon himself (atmanam abhdhyat) and differentiated himself into
diverse beings. When he found them to be lifeless and
inert like stone, he entered into them and divided himself into five breaths and
the internal fire (vaisvanara). Then, residing in the heart, he pierced five openings
in each body and through them began enjoying things using the five senses as his
reigns. The Upanishad further states that when the soul resides in the body and mind which is made up of the
elements, it is known as the elemental-self (bhutatma). The elemental-self
does not remember its highest state (parama padam) because of ignorance. It
becomes free from such an evil existence (papam) only when it gains the
knowledge of Brahman (Brahma vidya) through the triad, namely knowledge (vidya),
austerity (tapas) and meditation (cinta). The Upanishad distinguishes two types
of Brahman, the one with
form and the other without form. Of the two, the formless Brahman is real, upon
whom one
should meditate as Aum to become united with Him.
The Six fold Yoga
Apart from the three fold practice mentioned above, the Maitri Upanishad
prescribes six fold yoga (sadanga yoga) for the liberation of the elemental soul
from both good and evil. It consists of control of breath (pranayama),
withdrawal of the senses (pratyahara), meditation (dhyanam), dharana
(concentration), logical enquiry (tarka) and self-absoprtion (samadhi). In
contrast to the classical yoga of Patanjali, in this yoga, concentration (dharana)
comes after dhyana. Probably in this system dhyana means passive meditation and
tarka means concentrated meditation. According to S.Radhakrishnan, it is
contemplative enquiry or reflective self-absorption (savitarka samadhi ).
"It may also mean an enquiry whether the mind has become transformed or not
into object of meditation or investigation into the hindrances of concentration
caused by the inferior powers acquired by meditation."15. The Upanishad mentions a
higher concentration technique (parasya dharana) of seeing Brahman through
contemplative thought (tarka), known as lumbika-yoga. It consists of holding the
tip of the tongue down the palate, restraining the speech, the mind and the
breath and seeing the (shining) self through the (elemental or impure )
self.
The Paingala Upanishad
The Paingala Upanishad distinguishes four kinds of spiritual practice to
attain Brahman and explains the purport of each. They are hearing (sravanam),
reflection (mananam), meditation (nidhidhaysanam) and self realization (atma
darsana). Investigation into the meaning and purpose (vakyartha vicara) of
the Vedic mantras such as "Thou art That," and "I am
Brahman," constitute hearing (sravanam). Paying undivided attention to what
is being being heard is reflection. Concentrating the thought solely on what has
been understood through hearing and reflection is meditation. When the
distinction between the subject and the object disappears in the heightened
state of concentration, it is called cognition of the self (atma darsana). With
it all the karmas become destroyed and one experiences a shower of supreme bliss
coming from thousand directions. The wise call such a state as dharma megha
samadhi (self-absorption of the virtuous kind). As all the impurities are
removed and the past and present karmas are neutralized, the knower of Brahman
becomes a liberated being (jivan mukta). When the time of his departure from
this world comes, he leaves his embodied state and enters into the supreme state
of non-movement (aspandatam), which is eternal, devoid of sensations, constant,
alone and perfect.
The Kaivalya Upanishad
The Kaivalya Upanishad emphasizes the importance of devotion in the practice
of yoga and meditation. It identifies faith (sraddha), devotion (bhakti),
meditation (dhyana) and concentration as the means to know Brahman who is
equated with Siva. One should meditate upon the lotus of the heart which is
pure, without passion, where in lies the source of Brahma who is eternal. blue
throated and companion of Uma.
The Bhagavadgita
In the Bhagavadgita, Lord Krishna touches upon the subject of dhyana on many
occasions during the course of his long conversation with Arjuna. Verses 10 to
16 in the 6th chapter entitled, Dhayana Yoga, explain how and in what conditions
a yogi should subdue his mind through concentration. Living alone in solitude,
in a clean place covered with kusa grass, a deer skin and a cloth, one over the
other, on a firm seat, a yogi, who is pure and self-controlled, without desires
and free from possessions, should sit with his body, head and neck erect and
concentrate his mind upon the tip of the nose. With concentration and subdued
mind, he eventually attains lasting peace. So although the chapter is entitled
the yoga of meditation (dhyana yoga), it basically speaks about the practice of
concentration to control the mind and the senses. The same chapter defines yoga
as disconnection from union with pain16. In Chapter 12 meditation is
described to be superior to knowledge and renunciation of the fruit of action
better than meditation from which peace follows immediately17. In Chapter 13 it
is said that through dhyana one can see the Self in the Self by the Self18.
Dhyana in the Bhagavadgita
Dhyana is an important limb of the eightfold (ashtanga) yoga of Patanajali,
whose work the Yogasutra, considered to be the most authoritative ancient
treatise on Yoga, presents the practice of Yoga in a systematic and orderly
manner. The eight limbs of yoga are inter related and are not meant to be
practiced in isolation. The purpose of yoga is to control the fluctuations of
the citta and facilitate its stability by cultivating purity (sattva) through a
cleansing process so that one can become absorbed in oneself and realize his
true identity. Of the eightfold yoga, meditation (dhyana) is penultimate limb,
preceded by yama, niyama, pranayama, pratyahara, asana, dharana and followed by
samadhi. All the limbs are important and complimentary. In other words success
in meditation depends upon the progress achieved in other areas, especially the
ones preceding it in the order. So is the case with samadhi, which is not
possible unless there is perfection in all the other areas of yoga. Dhyana is an
important component of classical yoga. According to Patanjali stability of the
mind can be achieved by practsing meditation of objects that are pleasing to us
(Yatabhimata dhyanat va)19. In the third section of the Yogasutra he defines
dhyana as the steady (pratyata) and continuous flow of awareness (ekantata)
towards the same point20.
The Puranas and the symbolism
The epics and the Puranas are replete with the stories of seers, sages and
gods practicing yoga, tapas and other forms of spiritual practices. Some of the
stories have deep symbolism, such as the story of the churning of the oceans (sagara
manthanam) in which gods and demons come together to churn the ocean to extract
the elixir (amrita)21. The story symbolically represents various yogic practices
which culminate in immortality. In the story the ocean represents the citta
(often referred as the mind stuff or cit consciousness) which is subject to
mental fluctuations (citta vrittis). The gods and demons represents the pure and
impure thoughts and energies of the mind and the body (the physical
realm). the serpent Vasuki represent desire or the vaisvanara fire. The mount
mandhara represents concentration (dharana) of the mind (manas). The churning
represents the reflective or contemplative process in search of immortality. The
poison that emerged during the churning represent the pain and suffering
generated from the practice of austerities (tapas). Lord Siva represents the
teacher who takes upon himself the suffering of his sincere disciples. The
various magical objects that came out of the ocean during the churning represent
the various perfections (siddhis) or supernatural powers described in the
Yogasutra. Dharana (concentration) is focused bare attention and dhayana is
focused meditation.
Dhyana and tantra
Saivism has many sects and each has its own set of techniques and theories of
yoga, rooted in the theoretical and philosophical aspects of Saiva religious
texts (Agama) and tantras some of which are left handed (vamachara) and some
right handed (sadacara). The former use the mind and body, intoxicants, sexual
intercourse and socially reprehensible behavior as a part of their self-cleansing
process to achieve self-realization. All sects of Saivism and Shaktism worship
Siva or shakti or both and aim to achieve union with them through various
practices of which meditation or dhyana is an important component. Symbols and
images of Shiva and shakti and various mystica diagrams (yantras) used religious
worship, meditation and concentration, apart from proper conduct and devotion to
keep the mind pure and elevated. The yoga traditions of Saivims go by different
names such as hatha yoga, tantra yoga and kundalini yoga. According to Kularnava
Tantra, one of the well known texts of Kaula tradtion composed during the
medieval period, meditation is of two type coarse (sthula) and subtle (sukshma).
The former is meditation on form, usually an object, image or symbol and the
latter meditation on the formless, usually an abstract concept or state of Siva
as pure and resplendent light, bliss. In both types of meditation, the mind has
to become stable or immobile and the distinction between the subject and object
shoulld disappear to achieve the ectasic state of self-absorption (samadhi).
Meditation in hatha yoga
Hatha yoga is an important offshoot of Tantrism, which aims to develop the
human body, through various ascetic and yogic practices, into a strong diamond (vajra)
like and divine body that would be strong and pure enough to house the splendor
of Siva or Shakti. When the body is transmuted and filled with light and the
higher spiritual energies it becomes a fit vehicle for enlightenment and
possession extraordinary powers and abilities (siddhis) such as the will
to assume any form and live in the subtle regions in the subtle body at
will. Hatha yoga is followed by many traditions of Saivism but it was made
popular by the natha tradition established by Gorakshanath who probably lived
between 10th and 11th century C.E. Hatha yoga has many features common with the
classical yoga but differ from the latter with regard to the intensity and intent
of such practices. Hatha yoga used more painful and austere physical posture and
cleansing processes to perfect the mind and body and make it fit
transcendental experiences. Gheranda Samhita, prescribes six acts of
purification for this purpose of which meditation (dhyana) is one. According to
it, the postures (asana) make the body strong, the gestures (mudras) make it
stable, sense withdrawal (pratyahara) leads to calmmess, breath control (pranayama)
brings lightness, dhyana leads to the perception of the self and with samadhi
comes the ecstasic union. Dhauli, basti, neti, lauli, trataka and kapala-bhati
are the important and more specific techniques suggested by the scripture for
cleansing the variuos part of the mind and the body. It also mentions three
types of dhyana:
- Visualization of coarse objects (sthula dhyana), considered to be the
least effective of all
- Contemplation of Absolute being as the light (tejo dhyana) which is said
to be a hundred times better than the above.
- Visualization of subtle objects (sukshma dhayna) such as the essence of
the Self, which is said to be the greatest of all and hundred time better
than the meditation on light.
The Goraksha Paddathi22 describes meditation as two fold, "composite (sakala)
and impartite (nishkala). It is composite owing to differences in performance,
and impartite owing to differences in performance," which is also devoid of
qualities (nirguna). Meditation has to be practiced by visualizing the various
chakras in detail concentrating with focus on the serpent (kunadlini) starting
from the base (muladhara) and gradually moving upward to the top of the head (ajna-cakra).
"Anus, penis, navel, lotus, the one above that (i.e., the throat), the
bell, the place of 'hanger' (i.e.the Uuvula), the spot between the eyebrows, and
the space cavity (at the crown of the head)," are the nine locations (sthana)
of the body for focusing the mind and practicing visual meditation. It is
important to remember that these techniques should not be followed in isolation
but in conjunction with the remaining five acts of purification described above.
Jain yoga
Our knowledge of Jain yoga comes to us mainly from the work of writes like Haribhadra Suri ( 8th century C.E). Jain yoga shares some common features with the
yoga traditions of Hinduism and probably derived some of the concepts and
practices from the classical yoga of Patanjali. has two components:
- a preparatory course (purva seva) meant for the lay
followers who have become dissolutioned with their worldly lifes and embarked
upon a journey of liberation (apunar bandhaka)
- and the yoga proper meant for the more advanced practitioners, who have
advanced on the path and have achieved some degree of right or mixed vision
(samyag drishti).
Yoga for the lay followers consists of ritual worship (pujana), proper
conduct (sadacara), austerities (tapas), and no negative feelings towards liberation (mukti
advesha). Five levels of practice is suggested for the advanced followers:
centering in the self (adhyatma yoga), contemplation (bhavana), meditation (dhyana),
equanimity (samata), cessation of the modifications (vritii samskhaya) of the
consciousness. Dhayna or meditation is to be practiced everyday one or more
times, but at least once for 48 minutes, by all followers of Jainism as per the
techniques prescribed in their tradition.
Dhyana in Buddhism
The purpose of yoga in Buddhism to cultivate right attentiveness of the mind
and the body and control the movements of the mind so that we can experience
peace and equanimity (samatha). Buddhism does not believe in the existence of
soul. So unlike in classical yoga or in Hinduism, annihilation of the ego-sense
or the ephemeral and aggregate personality rather than realization of the self
is the ultimate goal of Buddhist yoga. Through meditation practitioners of
Buddhism aim to develop insight into themselves, how they think and act
motivated by various desires and subject themselves to suffering in numerous
ways. Thus, understanding and awareness or insight and mindfulness are the two important
elements of Buddhist dhyana. Balance or the middle approach is another important
aspect of this practice so that we will neither over indulge nor neglect our
duty to meditate regularly. As regards to the postures (asanas), breath control
(pranayama ), with drawl of the senses (pratyahara), methods and meditation and
states of self-absorption, there is a correlating between the yogic practices of
Buddhism and Hinduism. But as we have already said, the difference lies mainly
in the intent and the ultimate purpose of all of the practices.
In truth, in Buddhism, every aspect of the mundane life, every activity and movement
of the mind and the body can be an object of meditation. Various techniques are followed
to cultivate insightful awareness
and end suffering, such as tranquility (samatha) meditation, insightful (vipassana)
meditation In samatha meditation a meditator sits in a quietly
place, closing his eyes and calmly and rather passively lets go of his thoughts
and desires with detachment, with his attention focused on his breathing.
Whenever his attention is strayed, he brings it back to his breath. Regular
practice of this meditation said to result in calmness of the mind (samatha). Insight
meditation,. also known as vipassana meditation, involves a deep exploration of
all the movements that arise in the consciousness with mindfulness and
detachment. When a mediator becomes mindful of the contents of his mind, he
develops a deep understanding of the source of his suffering and the impermanence
of the world and eventually experiences peace. Sitting meditation and
walking meditation are other popular forms of meditation in Buddhism.
Conclusion
There is an attempt on the part of some scholars to
disassociate yoga and its practices like meditation from
Hinduism and paint them either as non-religious or secular in
nature. Yoga and its various practices have been part of Hindu
tradition since the early Vedic times, long before Patanajali
systematized them in his Yogasutra and the followers of Buddhism
followed their meditation techniques. One should not overlook
the fact that even Zen Buddhism came to China and Japan from
India through Bodhidharma and the word "Zen" originated from the
word "dhyana,23" which was a Sanskrit word of Hindu origin. Many
ascetic traditions, including those of Jainism and Buddhism
followed different versions of Yoga practiced in India since
ancient times. They originated essentially from the Hindu
traditions, both Vedic and non-Vedic, starting from the munis and rishis who received the knowledge of the Veda Samhitas
and the Upanishads and groups like the Vratyas and the Kapalikas
who were outside the pale of Vedic society. Dhyana is not meant
to be practiced in isolation but as a part of various other
practices which are meant to prepare the mind and the body to
experience altered states of consciousness and assimilate higher
forms of energy without side effects.
Suggested Further Reading
Footnotes
1. Kaluarnava Tantra - 9:16
2. Jenine Miller
3. Rigveda 10.139
4. Brihad 4.4.21
5. Rigveda 10.129
6. Brihadaranyaka Upanishad Chapter 1 and Chapter 2
7 Brihadaranyaka Upanishad Chapter 2, First Brahmana.
8. Briahdaranyaka Upanishad 3.5.1
9. Briahdaranyaka Upanishad 7:6
10.Katha Upanishad verse 12
11.Svetasvatara Upanishad 3
12.Svetasvatara Upanishad 4
13. Svetasvatara Upanishad 10
15. The Principal Upanishads, S.Radhakrishnan
16. Dukha samyoga viyogam yoga samjnitam
17. Bhagavadgita, Chatper 12, Verse 12.
18. Bhagavadgita, Chapter 13, Verse 24.
19. Yogasutra 1:39
20. Yogasutra tatra pratyaya ekanta dhyanam (3.2)
21. Sagar Manthan - Symbolism of The Churning Of The Ocean,
by Jayaram V http://www.hinduwebsite.com/churning.asp
22. Goraskha Paddathi, Translation as publised in the The Yoga Tradition, Its History, Literature, Philosophy And Practice
by George Feuerstein
23. The word "zen" is Japanese, derived
from the Chinese word chanan-na, which in turn is a corrupted
form of dhyana.
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