Buddhist Schools: Traditions and Philosophies

Honen, Pure Land Buddhism, Japan

by Jayaram V

Summary: After Buddha's passing, a major schism divided the Buddhist community into Mahāsāṃghikas and Sthaviras, eventually branching into 18 distinct schools. The Mahāsāṃghikas viewed Buddha as transcendent and were flexible in interpretation, while the conservative Sthaviras (Elders) strictly preserved original teachings and monastic discipline. Later, four major philosophical schools emerged: Vaibhasika (existential dualism), Sautrantika (sutra-based realism), Yogacara (consciousness-only idealism), and Madhyamika (middle way philosophy). Most ancient schools were absorbed into Hinayana and Mahayana, with only Theravada surviving to modern times.

Prior to the emergence of the Mahayana school and its expansion into many countries beyond the Indian subcontinent, Buddhism developed along many paths. After the Buddha's passing, a major schism happened in the Buddhist community, resulting in the formation of two schools, the Mahāsāṃghikas and the Sthaviras. The Mahasamghikas treated the Buddha like a god from beyond the world (lokottara), without human limitations, and held him in high esteem. They were moderate and flexible in interpreting the monastic rules and were open to new ideas and practices. Many believe the school to be a precursor of the Great Vehicle (Mahayana) that emerged subsequently.

The Sthaviras, meaning the Elders, were more conservative in their interpretation of the Buddha’s teachings. They wanted to adhere to the strict monastic discipline (vinaya) as laid down by him and preserve his original teachings to the extent possible. Subsequently, this school came to be known as Theravada and gained popularity in Sri Lanka and parts of India. In the next few centuries, between the 5th century B.C.E and the 4th century C.E, many schools of Buddhism branched out of these original two schools. Their number was said to be 25 or 26. However, the tradition recognizes only 18. Of them, only the Theravada school survived and continues to this day.

The Mahāsāṃghikas split into eight.

1. Branch-Mahasanghikas
2. Ekavyavaharins
3. Lokottaravadins
4. Bahusrutiyas
5. Nityavadins
6. Caityakas
7. Purvasailikas
8. Uttarasailikas

The Sthaviras split into ten.

1. Haimavatas
2. Sarvastivadins
3. Hetuvadins
4. Vatsiputriyas
5. Dharmadesakas
6. Bhadrayanikas
7. Sammitiyas
8. Bahudesakas
9. Dharmadesakas
10. Bhadravarsikas

All the eighteen schools were originally grouped under Sravakayana branch of Hinayana (the smaller vehicle) before the major split within the community resulting in the formation of Hinayana and Mahayana. Most of these schools were gradually absorbed into these two.

Four schools of philosophy

In his book, the Buddhist Philosophy In Theory and Practice ¹ , Herbert V.Guenther, identified four major schools philosophy: 

1. Vaibhasika
2. Sautrantika
3. Yogacara and
4. Madhyamika.

These four major philosophies or lines of thought must have emerged subsequently when Buddhism trannformed into a mature world religions, acquring many local and regional flavors in various parts of the world.

The Vaibhasikas, who are also known as "existential dualists" interpreted existential reality in terms of experiential knowledge arising out of contact with substances, some of which they considered as transitory and some as eternal and some as gross and some as subtle.

The Sautrantikas, who based their knowledge on the sutras, distinguished reality into that which was real and existing and that which was real but non-existing. They acknowledged the existence of phenomenal world but considered it to be transient. They believed that reality could not solely be dependent upon or discernible through substanaces only. "Within the reality as a whole, they distinguished that which exists, and that which is real but not existent." For them, the reality of concret things was transitory while the reality of the abstract things that were imperceptible were permanent.

The Yogacara school, which is also called the vijnanavada school, held the opinion that the whole world was an ideal. They argued that all phenomena existed because of consciousness and that the illusion of existence was a fabrication of the mind or consciousness alone. The school recognized various levels or gradations within consciousness created by the activity of the senses and the mind.

The Madhyamika philosophy was based on the original teachings of the Buddha and the middle path suggested by him. One of the chief proponents of this school was Nagarjuna whose interpretation of reality borders on skepticism or agnosticism. This school had to major branches, the Svatantrikas and the Prasangikas.

Although there are essentially at present two major branches of Buddhism, namely Mahayana and Hinayana, Buddhism developed several local characteristics in each geographical area where it spread. Thus today Buddhism goes by several names such as Tibetan Buddhism, Burmese Buddhism, Sri Lankan Buddhism, Thai Buddhism, Korean Buddhism, Cambodian Buddhism, Chinese Buddhism, Japanese Buddhism and so on.