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Ancient Period
The Bhakti Movement was essentially founded in South India and
later spread to
the North during the late medieval period. The notion
of 'Bhakti' (loosely translated as devotional love to God) prevailed
in the Indian subcontinent from antiquity. A nascent consciousness of
what 'Bhakti' constitutes was already to be found in the earliest
Vedas, especially in relation to such deities as Varuna. A clearer
expression of Bhakti began to be formed during the so-called Epic
Period and the Puranic periods of Hindu history. Texts such as the
Bhagavad Gita and the Bhagavata Purana clearly explored Bhakti Yoga or
the Path of Devotion as a means to salvation.
The Bhakti Movement itself is a historical-spiritual phenomenon
that crystallized in South India during Late Antiquity. It was
spearheaded by devotional mystics (later revered as Hindu saints) who
extolled devotion and love to God as the chief means of spiritual
perfection. The Bhakti movement in South India was spearheaded by the
sixty-three Nayanars (Shaivite devotees) and the twelve Alvars (Vaishnavaite
devotees).
Among the earliest Shaivite mystics was Karaikkal Amaiyar, who
probably lived around the late 5th century AD or perhaps the early 6th
century. She was said to be a contemporary of the Vaishnavaite saints
Bhuttalwar and Peialwar. Kannapa Nayanar was also an early Shaiva
Bhakti saint. But most famous among the Shaiva Bhakti saints were the
'Nalvar' (The Four Eminent Ones), namely Sundarar, Appar, Sambandar
and Manikkavasagar. Their devotional hymns are ecstatic, lyrical and
moving.
The Vaishnavaite Bhakti movement was contemporaneous with the
Shaiva Bhakti movement. The hymns of the twelve alvars are held
together as the 'Nalayira Divya Prabandham' and recited (as are the
Shaiva texts) in temple rituals. Whilst all the saints are held in
great reverence, Andal (or Goda-devi) in particular holds a special
place among the Vaishnava saints. Not only is she the only female
Vaishnava saint but also her hymns are among the best expressions of
bridal mysticism in the Hindu religion.
The twelve Alvars and the sixty-three Nayanars nurtured the
incipient bhakti movement in South India under the Pallavas and
Pandyas in the fifth to seventh centuries AD. They constitute [[South
India's 75 Apostles of Bhakti] and were greatly influential in
determining the expression of faith in South India. The path of
devotion as expounded by these mystics would later be incorporated
into Ramanuja and Madhva philosophical systems.
Medieval Period
During the 12th and 13th centuries A.D., the Virashaiva movement
and, during the rule of the Vijayanagar Empire in South India, the
Haridasa movement spread from present-day Karnataka. The Virashaiva
movement spread the philosophy of Basavanna, a Hindu reformer. The
seeds of Carnatic music were sown, and the philosophy of Madhvacharya
was propogated by the Kannada Haridasas.The Haridasa movement
presented, like the Virashaiva movement, another strong current of
Bhakti, pervading the lives of millions. The Haridasas presented two
groups – Vyasakuta and Dasakuta. The former were required to be
proficient in the Vedas, Upanishads and other Darshanas, while the
Dasakuta merely conveyed the message of Madhvacharya through the
Kannada language to the people. The philosophy of Madhvacharya was
preserved and perpetuated by his eminent disciples like Vyasatirtha or
Vyasaraja Naraharitirtha, Vadirajatirtha, Sripadaraya, Jayathirtha and
others. In the fifteenth century, the Haridasa movement took shape
under Sripadaraya of Mulbagal; but his disciple Vyasatirtha provided
it a strong organizational base. He was intimately associated with the
Vijayanagar Empire, where he became a great moral and spiritual force.
His eminent disciples were Purandaradasa and Kanakadasa.
The late Bhakti movement led to the proliferation of regional
poetic literature in the various vernacular languages of India. The
Bhakti movement in what is now Karnataka resulted in a burst of poetic
Kannada literature in praise of Lord Vishnu. Some of its leaders
include Purandara Dasa and Kanaka Dasa, whose contributions were
essential to Carnatic music. The later Carnatic Trinity is also no
doubt a product of this long Bhakti Movement.
The Bhakti movement began to spread to the North during the late
medieval ages when North India was under Muslim domination. There was
no grouping of the mystics into Shaiva and Vaishnava devotees as it
was in the South. The movement was spontaneous and the various mystics
had their own version of devotional expression. Unlike in the South
where devotion was centred on both Shiva and Vishnu (in all his
forms), the Northern devotional movement was more or less centred on
Rama and Krishna, both of whom were incarnations of Vishnu. Though
this did not mean that the cult of Shiva or of the Devi went into
decline. In fact for all of its history the Bhakti movement co-existed
peacefully with the other movements in Hinduism. It was initially
considered unorthodox as it rebelled against caste distinctions and
made disregarded Brahmanic rituals which according to Bhakti saints
not necessary for salvation. In the course of time however, owing to
its immense popularity among the masses (and even royal patronage) it
became 'orthodox' and continues to be one of the most important modes
of religious expression in modern India.
In the period between the 14-17th centuries, a great bhakti
movement swept through Northern India initiated by a loosely
associated group of teachers or 'Sants'. Caitanya, Vallabha, Meera Bai,
Kabir, Tulsi Das, Tukaram and other mystics spearheaded the Bhakti
movement in the North. Their teachings were that people could cast
aside the heavy burdens of ritual and caste and the subtle
complexities of philosophy and simply express their overwhelming love
for God. This period was also characterised by a spate of devotional
literature in vernacular prose and poetry in the ethnic languages of
the various Indian states or provinces.
As aforementioned whilst many of the Bhakti mystics focused their
attention on Krishna or Rama, it did not necessarily mean that the
cult of Shiva was marginalised. The growth of the Vira-Shaiva and the
older Shaiva Siddhanta schools in this period, which incorporated
Bhakti into their teachings are testimony to the growth of the Shaiva
faith in this period. In the thirteenth century Basava founded the
Vira-Shaiva school or Virashaivism. He rejected the caste system,
denied the supremacy of the Brahmins, condemned ritual sacrifice and
insisted on bhakti and the worship of the one God, Shiva. His
followers were called Vira-Shaivas, meaning "stalwart
Shiva-worshippers".
The Saiva-Siddhanta school is a form of Shaivism (Shiva worship)
found in the south and is of hoary antiquity. It incorporates the
teachings of the erstwhile Shaiva nayanars and espouses the belief
that Shiva is Brahman and his infinite love is revealed in the divine
acts of the creation, preservation and destruction of the universe,
and in the liberation of the soul.
Seminal Bhakti works in Bengali include the many songs of Ramprasad
Sen. His pieces (known as Shyama Sangeet, or Songs of the Dark Mother)
are still actively sung today in West Bengal. Coming from the 17th
century, they cover an astonishing range of emotional responses to Ma
Kali, detailing complex philosophical statements based on Vedanta
teachings and more visceral pronouncements of his love of Devi. Using
inventive allegory, Ramprasad had 'dialogues' with the Mother Goddess
through his poetry, at times chiding her, adoring her, celebrating her
as the Divine Mother, reckless consort of Shiva and capricious Shakti,
the universal female creative energy, of the cosmos.
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