Hinduism and its scriptures

We have seen in the previous sections that unlike other major religions, Hinduism does not rely upon a particular scripture or a revelation of God for following Truth, though it has a very positive, comprehensive and multi perspective approach to every thing that is Divine or connected to the Divine. In this article we will examine how various scholarly influences and thought processes went into the formation of this great tradition called Hinduism.

The Main Sources

Over a period of centuries during which it underwent a great metamorphosis, the religion drew its inspiration from various sources. Chief among them were: the Vedas, the Upanishads (which are actually the end portions of the Vedas), the Vedangas, the Puranas, the Bhagavad gita, the Darshanas, the Sutras, the two major epics called the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, the Agamas, the Vaishnava literature, the dharma shastra, karikas, Bhashyas and so on.

The works of great personalities like Shri Shankaracharya, Shri Ramanuja, Nimbarka, Vallabhacharya etc., also contributed to the revival of the religion and its popularity at a time when it was passing through great difficulties.

The Vedas

The Vedas are called nigamas, in contrast to agamas of the Shivites. They are believed to be composed neither by man nor by gods, but were only revealed. Hence they are called "shrutis" ( those that are heard) in contrast to "smritis" (those that are remembered). The vedic Aryans regarded them as timeless (sanatana), revealed by the Divine for the welfare of the mankind. They are also considered to be eternal which would remain amidst us as long as the world would exist and them go back to their source. They form the basis of Vedic religion out of which Hinduism of today evolved through gradual phases.

Shri Dattatreya, a manifestation of Lord Vishnu is shown to be always followed by four dogs who remain at His feet all the time. These four dogs represent the four Vedas, signifying the fact that the Vedas would always remain in the service of God, like faithful dogs and serve His cause.

The men behind the Vedas

These books were composed by rishis in a very ancient past about whose antiquity we can only make conjectures but no one can say for sure. According to tradition, they came from the family of the Angirasas (the family of angels, to use the English terminology). The Rigvedic hymns were ascribed chiefly to seven rishis. These seven rishis were Atri, Kanwa, Vashistha, Viswammitra, Jamadagni, Gotama, and Bharadwaja. They brought to light (as they heard) most of the hymns of the Rigveda.

The meaning of the Vedas

The word "Veda" is derived from the word "vid" which means to know. The Vedas are thus books of knowledge. The devout Hindus revere and regard them as very sacred, as the ultimate source of all their religious knowledge. It is said that all knowledge can be traced back to the Vedas in some way or the other. Even today there are many Hindu zealots who try to trace back many of the modern day scientific inventions to the knowledge contained in the Vedas. Though we are not sure how far such interpretations can be considered as correct.

The Vedas might have been "heard" or composed by different seers over a great period of time and were handed down from generation to generation through oral transmission. Since it was essential to maintain the purity of the hymns, a great emphasis was placed on the correct chanting of each word in the mantra according to a particular rhythm to maintain their efficacy during the performance of the rituals.

The Vedas are four in number namely: the Rigveda, the Yajurveda, the Samaveda and the Atharvaveda. According to one tradition, only the first three were accorded the status of the true Vedas for a long time, while for reasons not known to us, it took some time for the fourth one to join the rank of the rest.

The structure of the Vedas

The Samhitas, which contain the collection of the original hymns in praise of various gods and goddesses.

The Brahmanas, which discuss mainly the various aspects connected with the rituals

The Aranyakas or the books of the forest, which contain information on the nature and importance of sacrifices and their relation to man and the universe.

The Upanishads which form the end portions of the Vedas and constitute the Hindu Philosophy known as Vedanta.

Among the four Vedas, Rigveda ( Knowledge of the Verses) is the oldest and the most important. It contains 1017 ( according to some 1072 or even 1028) hymns or suktas divided into ten mandalas or books. These hymns are mostly composed in praise of various gods and goddesses. The gods and goddess of Rigveda were immortal, all knowing, who would bestow boons and favors upon human beings and bless them with their help and support in day to day life, if they were invoked properly through certain rituals and symbolic sacrifices.

The Vedic Deities

The principal deities referred in Rigveda are Surya (the Sun) who is also referred as Savitr and Vivasat, Soma (the moon), Agni (fire), Dyaus (sky), Maruts (storm winds), Prithvi (earth), Vayu (wind), Apa (water) and Ushas (dawn). In addition there are Indra, Varuna, Mitra, Aditya, Vishnu, Pushan, the two Asvins, Rudra and Parjanya. In addition to these gods and goddesses, we also come across Rbhus, or elves, Apsaras or nymphs, gandharvas or musical spirits, and even asuras or the demons.

Chief among the Vedic gods who became very popular during the Rigvedic period was Indra. He is the lord of the heavens, who is credited with the slaying of the snake demon Vrata to separate the earth and heaven and release the waters. He also went nearest to Brahman and tried to understand Him (Kena Upanishad). It is interesting to note that Vishnu and Rudra who were later elevated to the status of the Trinity along with Brahma, were not given a pride of place in the Rigvedic pantheon.

One of the most important hymns of the Rigveda is the hymn of creation which describes how the worlds and the beings were created in the universe out of nothingness by tad ekam (That One). The Rigveda also contains hymns extolling the virtues of Soma juice, derived from some unknown plant containing intoxicating properties. Reference also should be made about a rather controversial hymn called "Purusha Sukta" which describes how the four Hindu castes came into existence.

The other Vedas

The Yajurveda contains knowledge of Yaj or sacrifices. Here the emphasis is more on the mechanics of performing the rituals for the invocation of gods, such as the implements to be used and the offerings to be made by the priests while performing them.

The Samaveda is more lyrical in nature and contains the knowledge of the chants. The hymns of this Veda are chanted in a prescribed melody by the priests. It is interesting to note that Lord Krishna declares in the Bhagavad-Gita that among the Vedas He is the Samaveda !

The Atharvaveda contains 20 books most of which deal with magical spells for long life, good health, protection from evil, charms etc. It also includes several hymns of the Rigveda. According to some scholars in the Atharvaveda we see a fine amalgamation of vedic beliefs with certain animist beliefs of the time. Atharvaveda not only deals with gods and goddesses but also with "dark and demonical powers" who need to be supplicated and won over. But such scholarly opinions suggest human design behind the composition of the Vedas and contradict the shruti tradition, reduce the texts to the status of mere literary or scholastic works.

The mantra tradition

Reference also need to be made about the mantra tradition. Each of the Vedic hymns is divided into one or more stanzas which are called mantras. It is said that the mantras carry within themselves various spiritual or magical powers which can be unlocked if they are properly recited using correct pronunciation and with a particular vibration. Each mantra in order to be effective has to be preceded by the word OM or AUM

A mantra is a deity by itself. It would come to life the moment it is properly pronounced. The sound that we generate while chanting a mantra carries with in it the seed of the deity's energies. Such energies can be released and directed for a specific cause by chanting the mantras properly.

If the mantras are not properly chanted they may become counter productive and generate harmful effects. Hence to achieve appropriate efficacy the students are expected to concentrate their minds and energies on the proper recitation of each mantra.

Though on the surface the Vedas appear to be mere invocations to various gods, they are said to be suffused with a lot of hidden symbolic significance as revealed by Shri Aurobindo in his book entitled, "the Secret of the Vedas."

The Upanishads are believed to be at least 350 in number, though there is a great deal of controversy about their exact number. Some of them are relatively modern, while some very ancient. They are the end portions of the Vedas and hence what they teach is appropriately called Vedanta (the end part of the Vedas.)

They basically deal with the subject of Brahman, the Universal Self and Atman the individual self and try to answer such riddles as the true nature of man and his place in and relation with the universe. More than the Vedas it is the Upanishads which impart the much acclaimed philosophical depth and mystical vision to Hindu thought. Important Upanishads are Brihadaranyaka, Chandyoga, Isa, Aitareya, Taittiriya, Katha, Prashna, Kena, Mundaka, Mandukya, Svetavatara. You can go to our section on Upanishads to know more about each of these upanishads.

IV. Hinduism- the many influences (Part-I)